Table 1 and Figure 2 show the QOL’s weighted scores of the male and female members of the Tausug tribe who participated in this study.

Figure 3

Figure 2. Weighted scores for the QOL of male (M) and female (F) Tausugs

The results show that the mean weighted scores of the overall QOL including the subdomains were above 15, indicating that the quality of life of the Tausugs was good. Although there were male Tausugs who have weighted scores that are below 15 for almost all the subdomains of life except the psychological/spiritual aspect, most male Tausugs have high levels of satisfaction with their quality of life. Male Tausugs with weighted scores below 15 have low satisfaction with the status of their health, socioeconomic, and family conditions.

Results also show that a few female Tausugs have weighted scores below 15 in their socioeconomic and psychological/spiritual domains of life. This indicates low satisfaction in these areas. For the rest of the life domains, however, all of the female participants were highly satisfied.

The QOL’s weighted scores of the male and female Sama-Banguinguis are shown in Table 1 and Figure 3.

Figure 4

Figure 3. Boxplot presentation of the weighted scores for QOL of male (M) and female (F) Sama-Banguingui participants.

The results show a number of male and female Sama-Banguinguis have weighted scores below 15 in all aspects of life except in the health domain, wherein all the male participants have weighted scores above 15. This result indicates that the majority of Sama-Banguinguis have high levels of satisfaction toward their health, socioeconomic, and psychological/spiritual conditions, and family situations.

Table 1 and Figure 4 show the QOL’s weighted scores of the participants belonging to the Yakan tribe.

Figure 5

Figure 4. Boxplot presentation of the weighted scores for QOL of male (M) and female (F) Yakans.

The results show that a number of male Yakans have low satisfaction in the health domain of life. With regards to the socioeconomic aspect of life, only a few individuals from both sexes have scores below 15, indicating a majority of the Yakans have high levels of satisfaction with their health conditions. With regard to their psychological/spiritual aspect of life, all the Yakans were highly satisfied and contented. For the family subdomain, a few males were not highly satisfied with their family conditions while all the female and a majority of the male Yakans were highly satisfied and contented with the state of their family condition.

Figure 5 shows the range and means of the weighted scores for the overall QLI of the four Muslim tribes.

Figure 6

Figure 5. Boxplot presentation of the weighted scores for overall QOL of male (M) and female (F) participants from the 4 Muslim tribes.

Almost all individuals of the tribes have a high overall quality of life. The outliers are some female Sama Banguinguis who have a low overall quality of life. Although all the four cultural groups have high overall quality of life based on the weighted scores, comparison between the sexes of the four Muslim cultural groups using Kruskal-Wallis test revealed that the Badjao males significantly differ in their quality of life with those of the Tausug and Sama Banguigui males. Likewise, it was also shown that the Sama Banguingui males significantly differ in their overall quality of life with those of the females of their tribe (Table 2).

Figure 7

Table 2. Pairwise comparisons of the weighted scores of the male (M) and female (F) groups of the 4 Muslim tribes for the overall QOL.

Qualitative observation of the boxplots shows that the range of the weighted scores in the health and functioning domain of the quality of life index (QLI) were observed to vary between tribes and between male and female groups of each tribe (Fig. 6). Except for a very few individuals, almost all are satisfied with the health and functioning aspect of their lives.

Figure 8

Figure 6. Boxplot presentation of the weighted scores of male (M) and female (F) participants of the four Muslim Tribes in the Health and Functioning domain of the QLI.

Kruskall-Wallis comparison between sexes within and between groups revealed that only the Badjao males were observed to differ in the level of their satisfaction with their health and functioning domains from the Tausug, Sama Banguingui and Yakan males and the Sama Banguingui and Yakan females (Table 3).

Figure 9

Table 3. Pairwise comparisons of the weighted scores of male (M) and female (F) participants of each tribe with respect to the Health and Functioning domain of the QLI.

All the male and female Badjaos were shown to have weighted scores above 15 in this subdomain of the quality of life indicating that this Muslim group is highly satisfied with their social and economic conditions. The other three Muslim groups have individuals with weighted scores below 15 indicating a low level of satisfaction with their social and economic conditions.

Figure 10

Figure 7. Boxplot presentation of the weighted scores of male (M) and female (F) participants of the four Muslim Tribes in the Social and Economic domain of the QLI.

Comparison of the level of satisfaction of the different Muslim groups with their social and economic conditions shows that only the Sama Banguingui females differ from the males in their tribe and the Tausug males (Table 4).

Figure 11

Table 4. Pairwise comparisons of the weighted scores of male (M) and female (F) participants of each tribe with respect to the Social and Economic domain of the QLI.

The Badjaos as well as the Yakans were observed to have high levels of life satisfaction with regard to the psychological and spiritual domains of their quality of life. Some Tausugs and Sama Banguinguis were shown to have low levels of satisfaction with their psychological and spiritual life conditions (Fig. 8). Comparison between the tribes, however, shows that these four Muslim cultural groups do not differ in the social and spiritual domains of their quality of life (Table 5).

Figure 12

Figure 8. Boxplot presentation of the weighted scores of male (M) and female (F) participants of the four Muslim Tribes in the Psychological and Spiritual domain of the QLI.

Figure 13

Table 5. Pairwise comparisons of the weighted scores of male (M) and female (F) participants of each tribe with respect to the Psychological and Spiritual domain of the QLI.

The weighted scores of the four Muslim cultural groups is presented in Figure 9. Qualitative observation of the boxplots shows that all the Badjaos as well as the Tausug and Yakan females have high levels of satisfaction with their family life as shown by their weighted scores which are above 15. Some male Tausugs, male and female Sama Banguinguis, and male Yakans, however, have low levels of satisfaction with their family life as their scores fell below 15. Pairwise comparisons of the weighted scores on the family subdomain of the different Muslim cultural groups reveal that the Badjao males differ in their level of satisfaction of the quality of life of their family conditions from those of the Badjao females, Tausug and Sama Bangungui males (Table 6).

Figure 14

Figure 9. Boxplot presentation of the weighted scores of male (M) and female (F) participants of the four Muslim Tribes in the Family domain of the QLI.

Figure 15

Table 6. Pairwise comparisons of the weighted scores of male (M) and female (F) participants of each tribe with respect to the Family domain of the QLI.

It can be argued from the results of this study that Islamic tenets interwoven with traditional practices may have played a role in the perception of the four Muslim cultural groups of a very good quality of life. Majority of Muslim Filipinos’ strict observance of Islamic principles and application of these principles to their way of life so as not to provoke Allah’s displeasure are perceived to prevent the occurrence of misfortunes or illnesses. These groups also practice rituals in order to continually pacify the spirits of their ancestors since it is believed that the course of one’s life is influenced by the stance of one’s ancestors. Peculiar practices are likewise observed to put a stop to epidemics or to deter illnesses. The Yakans, for example, wear ornaments that serve as talismans. Belts made of snake bones are believed to safeguard their bodies from pain while fruits of a flower sequenced together into a necklace or bracelet, an ornament called manic tegiyas, is said to keep them away from illnesses caused by evil spirits.³¹. The Badjaos also have practices which they can claim as their own. One example is the reliance on mediums to get rid of infirmity-causing spirits from their community during times of disease outbreaks. This is done by setting a “spirit boat” floating aimlessly in the open sea, way beyond the area where they conduct economic activities. They also have this practice of deliberately breaking their eardrums at a young age to make hunting and diving into the sea easier.²⁰ These customs are deemed to influence the four Muslim groups’ good perception of their quality of life.^{7-9, 14}.

It is also important to note that health awareness programs and delivery of health care services by Taluksangay’s barangay health center have helped in preventing and alleviating illnesses in the Muslim goups. Assessment of satisfaction with respect to the health and functioning life domain revealed high satisfaction with their health and energy conditions, self-reliance, sex life, control over their own lives, abilities in taking care of family responsibilities and in handling the worries that come into their lives, usefulness to others, and recreation.³ These variables were also considered important by the respondents from the four Muslim groups. Similar findings have been documented in the Quality of Life literature. Robinson¹³ in a study of older adults and sexuality found positive correlations between quality of life and health status as well as intimacy and sexual activity. She reported that there is a 0.465 increase in the predicted quality of life scores when an individual is healthy. In addition, a small but significant 0.003 unit increase in predicted quality of life scores was observed when there is a one unit increase in the sexual activity aspect. She further cited a study done in 2003 by Bowling et al. who found out that a significant percentage of the participants in their study indicated that health was essential to a “good” quality of life.

Interviews with the respondents revealed that they were also satisfied with the delivery of health care services by their barangay health center. This reflects efficient implementation of the policies created to nurture the health of Taluksangay residents. This also reflects a duly proportioned fund for health care, thus indicating good governance on the part of the Taluksangay barangay officers and success of the Zamboanga City’s first and foremost mission, which is “to improve the quality of life of its citizenry through sound local governance that delivers efficient and effective basic services and provides the necessary infrastructure.”¹⁹

Different Filipino Muslim cultural groups are commonly perceived to not be closely bonded and that camaraderie among them is wanting. It was argued that this is probably due to some differences in the social norms and mode of conduct between each group resulting in tribal conflicts that have kept on for centuries.³³ While the Muslim cultural groups in Taluksangay differ in their cultural and social practices, they have remained cordial and are not in conflict with one another. This can be attributed to the fact that the different groups are guided by the basic principles for a good person as dictated by their culture. The members of the Taluksangay community are more focused on economic activities for the improvement of their life conditions. The following cultural practices may explain the results of the study where all the Muslim cultural groups perceived the quality of their social and economic life to be very good.

Underlying Tausug socialization, for example, are five groups of accepted norms: (a) adat (customs); (b) tabi-at (etiquettes); (c) pali-lihan (beliefs and practices); (d) tarasul iban daman (proverbs and sayings); (e) agama (religious orientation). Education and training according to these norms is provided to a Tausug child by his parents. In addition, observation of his environment and direct participation in various processes of social interaction facilitate the Tausug child’s internalization of these norms. ⁹

The Sama-Sama (togetherness) concept guides the sea-oriented Sama-Banguinguis in their social interactions with one another. One avenue for socialization is their economic activities such as shell gathering, fishing, and seaweed farming.⁸ The adult members of the Sama-Banguingui community are careful to conform to the said concept and other social norms because they firmly believe that their practice influences their children’s future behavior. “What the adult does is being imitated by the young.” In addition, the “ought” and “ought not”, as prescribed by the Sama religion, play a big role to the sculpting of value orientations. The belief on the existence of Sulga (heaven) and Narka (hell) is a valuable and effectual means that lends a hand in controlling the Napsu (desires) of the Sama, hence, protecting their Iyman (faith). This is further enhanced by their traditional belief in Jinism and supernatural power of dead ancestors whose tampats (graveyards) are respected and hallowed through yearly offerings because they are believed to have the powers of busung and barakat. Busung bestows bad things to happen, while barakat grants good blessings.⁸

In the Badjao community, ties and bonds within and among families are the main bases of social interactions and are considered as essential economic units as well. Most social interaction occurs among contemporaries and kinsmen in economic activities such as fishing and other related undertakings. The Badjao people are found to be commonly engaged in trading their goods with their family relatives or neighbors. One dynamic that shapes the conduct of agreeable and friendly relations among the Badjao is their tendency to lend and borrow on a mutual basis. One will definitely be separated and even cut off from his larger social unit if one neglects doing so.¹⁴

In the Yakan community, people are very polite and courteous. They always give out a greeting when they come across each other or as they enter and leave the house they are visiting. A Yakan always believes that he is not alone and can always depend on the help of his relatives, neighbors and friends in solving whatever conflicts that may arise between individuals or between families.⁷

Economic wise, the Tausugs are considered wealthier than the other Muslim groups due to their expertise in clothing and jewelry trading.³³ Aside from this, fishing and farming are regarded by most Tausug non-professionals as the two most important areas of economic activity. Most of the Tausug professionals, on the other hand, are seen working in various government bureaus and private ventures while the rest are into sales and provision of services.⁹

The Yakans are exceptionally skilled in weaving as well as farming and cattle raising.³³ Their economic activities are influenced by their belief that certain days of the week such as Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays are good working days, while Thursdays, Fridays, Saturdays and Sundays are regarded as bad days. Hammis (Monday), for example, stands for water which implies coolness and is therefore considered a favorable day to start working. Juma-at (Friday), on the other hand, stands for fire or heat hence, the Yakans avoid doing work on this particular day.⁷

Much of the Badjao’s economic activities are tied to the sea, thus most of them are engaged in fishing³¹ and pearl diving. The pearls they get and a portion of their daily fish catch are sold in the markets. Moreover, many of them are into mat weaving, especially the women, while a significant number of them are into building sailboats or vintas, fish trap making and fishnet weaving. ¹⁴

The Sama-Banguinguis are also very much exposed to maritime activities³³ thus, their major source of revenue is fishing. Farming, followed by logging and hunting are their other major sources of income. A few of the Sama-Banguinguis are also engaged in other gainful trades and livelihoods, such as transportation, communications, restaurants and refreshment parlors, carpentry and other crafts, trades and other commercial enterprises, including the most recent one which is seaweed farming or Agal-Agal. Furthermore, an increasing number of educated Sama-Banguinguis have joined either the government or private institutions and are salary earners.⁸

In evaluating the quality of life of the four Muslim groups with respect to the social and economic life domain, results revealed high satisfaction and contentment with their friends, the emotional support they get from people other than their family, their neighborhood, home, having a job or not having a job, educational attainment, and financial needs.³

The foundation of the Tausug culture lies in the spirit of maratabat, a concept of honor, “face”, dignity, sense of shame and pride, ethics and etiquette, protocol, and self-esteem. It is an age-old guide to social relations, individual and collective action, that is, if one does not treat other people well, then he cannot expect respect and support to be given to him in return.²⁸ A similar underpinning is also seen in the cultures of the Yakan, Sama Banguingui, and the Badjao. So, despite differences in their practices, social unity can be seen within each group which might have a great impact on their quality of life with respect to the social domain.

Regarding economic life, not much opportunity for the practice of these groups’ expertise were seen in Taluksangay so some members opted to find some other means of livelihood in order to support their families. However, this did not deter the respondents of this study from being satisfied and contented with their earnings.

Aside from the spirit of maratabat, the cultures of these Muslim groups are also founded on their firm belief and trust in their god, Allah, the observance of the five pillars of Islam, and spirit/ancestor worship.^{7-9, 14} The Sama-Banguinguis, for example, believe that good fortune and adversity are due to what has been willed and destined by the divine (Kadar Iban Janji). But despite being very pious and faithful in following Islamic principles, they cannot do away with their firm belief in environmental spirits.²⁹

The strong-minded Tausugs are also faithful followers of Islam. But apart from Allah or Tuhan, they also believe in spirits that inhabit nature, such as rocks and trees, like the evil spirits called saytan and unseen creatures called jinn. This belief in spirits and the things they can bring to the life of a Tausug still plays a great part in their daily life.²³

The Badjaos are primarily pagans, practicing ancestor worship and keeping these spirits “happy” and comfortable, by offering food and cigarettes, so as not to trigger the occurrence of misfortunes. Islamic influences, however, are shown in some of their ceremonies, such as weddings, which are presided over by an Imam (a Muslim religious leader) and where the Qur’an is used.²⁰

The Yakans also firmly believe in both Islam, where the mosque has always played a dynamic role in guiding them, and spirit worship, a pre-Islamic religious belief. They also truly accept the concepts of Surga (heaven) and Narka (hell) so that they have to do rigorous work on earth in order to go to heaven after death.²⁴

These two areas of belief, incorporating Islamic principles and traditional practices, is where their real strength and confidence lie, thus giving them peace of mind and general happiness as well as satisfaction and contentment with the personal goals that they are able to achieve, their appearance, and their selves in general,³ as revealed by the results of the assessment of the four tribes’ satisfaction with respect to the psychological and spiritual life domain. These results are in agreement with one of the findings of Ferriss⁴ in his study on Religion and the Quality of Life, that happiness is found to be associated with the frequency of attendance at religious services, with denominational preference, and with doctrinal preference, hence arriving at a conclusion that “religion may explain a purpose in life that fosters well-being.”

The Tausug, Sama-Banguingui, Badjao, and Yakan communities residing in Taluksangay are similar in family structure. They all belong to the patriarchal society wherein the father is the head of the nuclear family or household. As the leader of the home, the father has the responsibility of ensuring that the customs, Islamic tenets, and belief systems particular to their specific tribe are being taught and followed in his household. Furthermore, the father is also in charge of providing for his family’s daily needs and, together with the mother, responsible for molding his children’s character.^{7-9, 1}4

Aside from the parents, consanguineal relatives from both the paternal and maternal sides also have a role in fashioning the children’s future behavior. This concept of a kinship system is referred to as mag-usba-waris (usba, father’s kinsmen; waris, mother’s kin).^{7-9, 14}

In the Tausug community, the usba plays a major part in sculpting an individual’s thinking as well as social relations. They are expected to afford help and protection to the Tausug males and select husbands for the females as well as give the final decision on marriage agreements, especially regarding the ungsud (bridal gift). ⁹

In the Yakan community, an individual or family can rely on the assistance of his usba-waris in solving conflicts. A high degree of responsibility is given to the usba. The waris are afforded the right to decide, but the final say falls on the usba.⁷ This concept of a kindred system is similarly observed in the Sama-Banguingui community.

In the case of the Badjaos, every member of the household, from the parents down to their offspring, has his own set of duties and responsibilities. The father acts as leader; the mother does the cooking; the children collect firewood from the coastal areas, help gather seafood and fetch water. The whole family comprises an economic unit, which means that they all have to work together in order to survive.²⁵

Assessment of satisfaction with regard to the Family life domain also reveals a high satisfaction with their family’s health, children, family happiness, spouse/ lover/partner, and the emotional support from their family.³

The family is the basic foundation that is vital to the structure of society²⁶ thus, social processes such as mutual trust among members, support and shared expectations¹⁵ despite difficult family situations can also be assumed to be in operation. These social processes affect the family’s health and happiness.

A high level of satisfaction with respect to the family aspect of quality of life, as found in this study, indicates that the said social processes are functioning in the families of the respondents.